This is a classic document: "Civilization and sludge: Notes on the history of the management of human excreta" .
25 Feb 2009. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10455759809358806
Biosolids and Sewage Wastes have caused Harmful Algae Blooms Sewage Wastes and Harmful Algal Blooms
Studies of Health Risks Associated with Sewage Wastes
STUDIES OF HEALTH RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH SEWAGE WASTES
“Guidance on PFAS Exposure, Testing, and Clinical Follow-Up. Explore insights and recommendations from the National Academies” https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/26156/interactive/
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF PFAS
Organizations such as the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and the EPA have linked exposure to PFAS (particularly PFOA and PFOS) to multiple cancers, thyroid dysfunction, small changes in birthweight, and high cholesterol. Most health effects or conditions found to be associated with PFAS exposure are already common in the general population and all have multiple known risk factors. This report provides an objective and authoritative review of current evidence to determine the likely association between exposure to PFAS and elevated risk of several human health effects. The report looked at studies only of the seven PFAS being monitored in the CDC’s National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals.
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"Emerging environmental health risks associated with the land application of biosolids"
https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-023-01008-4
Over 40% of the six million dry metric tons of sewage sludge, often referred to as biosolids, produced annually in the United States is land applied. Biosolids serve as a sink for emerging pollutants which can be toxic and persist in the environment, yet their fate after land application and their impacts on human health have not been well studied. These gaps in our understanding are exacerbated by the absence of systematic monitoring programs and defined standards for human health protection.
During wastewater treatment, solids are separated from liquids and are then treated physically and chemically to produce a semisolid, nutrient-rich product known as biosolids or sewage sludge. Biosolids are typically disposed of through landfilling, incineration, or are used as a soil amendment (fertilizer) as they contain high concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous, organic carbon, and other essential elements which are beneficial for soil quality and crop production [1,2,3]. Although the benefit of recycling nutrients necessary for crop production and avoiding the use of energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers is significant, biosolids also act as a sink for emerging pollutants [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Preventing harmful exposures to these emerging pollutants when land applied remains a challenge [10, 20, 22]. The debate over safely using these human waste-derived biosolids as soil amendments is ongoing [23].
The US EPA standards for determining biosolids quality are found in Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 503, but are limited in focus to the presence of ten inorganic metals (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Cr, Se, and Zn), pathogens, and vector attractiveness. These standards do not currently contain regulatory standards or thresholds that pertain to the presence of synthetic organic contaminants [10]. And, while many organic compounds degrade easily and have minimal harmful effects on the environment, other more toxic organic contaminants meet the US EPA’s definition of being persistent and can accumulate in environment, causing harm to humans and wildlife when land applied [24]. In addition to the lack of standards for monitoring persistent and toxic organic contaminants in biosolids prior to land application, there are significant gaps in our understanding of fate of these pollutants once land applied and the synergistic effects of multiple organic compounds on their distribution and transport within the environment. Moreover, the lack of efficient technologies to detect and measure these organic contaminants further reduces our ability to monitor their presence in the environment and evaluate potential impacts on human health.
The volume of biosolids produced in the US is not inconsequential. The US EPA estimates that, in states where they are the permitting authority, 4.5 million dry metric tons were produced in 2021 with nearly half (43%) being land applied [25]. The remaining biosolids were landfilled, incinerated, or managed by other methods such as storage or deep well injection. The US EPA also notes that the actual amount produced could be as much as 6 million dry metric tons according to a 2018 survey conducted by the North East Biosolids and Residuals Association, because it additionally accounts for states where US EPA is not the permitting authority. The global market for biosolids was estimated at 7.5 billion USD in 2022 and is projected to reach 10.7 billion USD by 2030 [26].
This scoping review provides a landscape of the current research regarding emerging pollutants in biosolids and their fate in the environment when land applied. Potential pathways of exposure, current detection methods, and possible impacts on human health and the environment are discussed. The need for additional research on the fate of these pollutants and their synergistic effects in the environment along with the significant need for novel treatment methods and detection technologies for emerging pollutants is highlighted. The authors call critical attention to the many knowledge gaps that currently exist to guide state and Federal regulatory frameworks for human health protection when biosolids are land applied.
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Epidemiology Evidence for Health Effects of 150 per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: A Systematic Evidence Map
https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/EHP11185
Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 130, Issue 9, CID: 096003, https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1118
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Wastewater-derived organic contaminants in fresh produce: Dietary exposure and human health concerns
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118986
However, for the extreme exposure scenario, the anticonvulsant agents lamotrigine and carbamazepine, and the carbamazepine metabolite epoxide-carbamazepine exhibited the highest exposure levels of 29,100, 27,200, and 19,500 ng/person (70 kg) per day, respectively. These exposure levels exceeded the TTC of lamotrigine and the metabolite epoxide-carbamazepine, and the ADI of carbamazepine, resulting in hazard quotients of 2.8, 1.1, and 1.9, respectively. According to the extreme estimated scenario, consumption of produce irrigated with reclaimed wastewater (leafy vegetables in particular) may pose a threat to human health. Minimizing irrigation of leafy vegetables using reclaimed wastewater and/or improving the quality of the reclaimed wastewater using an advanced treatment would significantly reduce human dietary exposure to CECs.
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“Involuntary human exposure to carbamazepine: A cross-sectional study of correlates across the lifespan and dietary spectrum 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105951”
Though little is known about how the health of people drinking reclaimed water are affected we know that human exposure to contaminants can occur through ingestion of reclaimed wastewater-irrigated produce. It has now been documented that individuals who consumed reclaimed wastewater-irrigated produce excreted carbamazepine and its metabolites in their urine, while subjects who consumed fresh water-irrigated produce excreted undetectable or significantly lower levels of carbamazepine.
ABSTRACT Treated wastewater (TWW) is increasingly used for agricultural irrigation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Carbamazepine is among the most frequently detected pharmaceuticals in TWW. Moreover, its uptake and accumulation have been demonstrated in crops irrigated with TWW. A previous controlled trial found that urine concentrations of carbamazepine were higher in healthy volunteers consuming TWW-irrigated produce as compared to freshwater-irrigated produce. The aim of the current study was to assess whether carbamazepine is quantifiable in urine of Israelis consuming their usual diets and whether concentrations vary according to age, personal characteristics and diet. In this cross-sectional study, we recruited 245 volunteers, including a reference group of omnivorous healthy adults aged 18–66; pregnant women; children aged 3–6 years; adults aged > 75 years; and vegetarians/vegans. Participants provided spot urine samples and reported 24-hour and “usual” dietary consumption. Urinary carbamazepine levels were compared according to group, personal characteristics, health behaviors, and reported diet. In adults, higher carbamazepine concentrations were significantly associated (p < 0.05) with self-defined vegetarianism, usual consumption of dairy products and at least five vegetables/day, and no meat or fish consumption in the past 24-hours. This study demonstrates that people living in a water-scarce region with widespread TWW irrigation, are unknowingly exposed to carbamazepine. Individuals adhering to recommended guidelines for daily fresh produce consumption may be at higher risk of exposure to TWW-derived contaminants of emerging concern.
"Longitudinal study on the multifactorial public health risks associated with sewage reclamation
."https://www.nature.com/articles/s41545-024-00365-y
Abstract – This year-long research analyzed emerging risks in influent, effluent wastewaters and biosolids from six wastewater treatment plants in Spain’s Valencian Region. Specifically, it focused on human enteric and respiratory viruses, bacterial and viral faecal contamination indicators, extended-spectrum beta-lactamases-producing Escherichia coli, and antibiotic-resistance genes. Additionally, particles and microplastics in biosolid and wastewater samples were assessed. Human enteric viruses were prevalent in influent wastewater, with limited post-treatment reduction. Wastewater treatment effectively eliminated respiratory viruses, except for low levels of SARS-CoV-2 in effluent and biosolid samples, suggesting minimal public health risk. Antibiotic resistance genes and microplastics were persistently found in effluent and biosolids, thus indicating treatment inefficiencies and potential environmental dissemination. This multifaced research sheds light on diverse contaminants present after water reclamation, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health in wastewater management. It underscores the need for a One Health approach to address the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
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"From Toilet to Tap: Risks of Direct Potable Reuse”. https://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/FSW_2303_ToilettoTapWaterReuse.pdf
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“Direct potable reuse and birth defects prevalence in Texas: An augmented synthetic control method analysis of data from a population-based birth defects registry”. March 2024. Environmental Epidemiology 8(2):e300 DOI:10.1097/EE9.0000000000000300
Abstract - Direct potable reuse (DPR) involves adding purified wastewater that has not passed through an environmental buffer into a water distribution system. DPR may help address water shortages and is approved or is under consideration as a source of drinking water for several water-stressed population centers in the United States, however, there are no studies of health outcomes in populations who receive DPR drinking water. Our objective was to determine whether the introduction of DPR for certain public water systems in Texas was associated with changes in birth defect prevalence.
Results - There were nonstatistically significant increases in prevalence of all birth defects collectively (average treatment effect in the treated = 53.6) and congenital heart disease (average treatment effect in the treated = 287.3) since June 2013. The estimated prevalence of neural tube defects was unchanged.
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“Chemicals/materials of emerging concern in farmlands: sources, crop uptake and potential human health risks. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36444949/
The primary sources of CECs in farmlands are agricultural inputs, such as wastewater, biosolids, sewage sludge, and agricultural mulching films. The percent increase in cropland area during 1950-2016 was 30 and the rise in land use for food crops during 1960-2018 was 100-500%, implying that there could be a significant CEC burden in farmlands in the future. In fact, the alarming concentrations (μg kg-1) of certain CECs such as PBDEs, PAEs, and PFOS that occur in farmlands are 383, 35 400 and 483, respectively. Also, metal nanoparticles are reported even at the mg kg-1 level. Chronic root accumulation followed by translocation of CECs into plants results in their detectable concentrations in the final plant produce. Thus, there is a continuous flow of CECs from farmlands to agricultural produce, causing a serious threat to the terrestrial food chain. Consequently, CECs find their way to the human body directly through CEC-laden plant produce or indirectly via the meat of grazing animals. Thus, human health could be at the most critical risk since several CECs have been shown to cause cancers, disruption of endocrine and cognitive systems, maternal-foetal transfer, neurotoxicity, and genotoxicity.
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Emerging environmental health risks associated with the land application of biosolids: a scoping review”. (2023)
https://ehjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12940-023-01008-4
" Current research indicates that persistent organic compounds, or emerging pollutants, found in pharmaceuticals and personal care products, microplastics, and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have the potential to contaminate ground and surface water, and the uptake of these substances from soil amended by the land application of biosolids can result in contamination of food sources. Advanced technologies to remove these contaminants from wastewater treatment plant influent, effluent, and biosolids destined for land application along with tools to detect and quantify emerging pollutants are critical for human health protection. Vasilachi et al. further indicated that if emerging pollutants are in mixtures, the toxic effects can be cumulative and generate synergistic or antagonistic interactions, leading to the so-called “cocktail effect”, so that the difficulty of risk analysis increases."
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"Land Application of Treated Sewage Sludge: Community Health and Environmental Justice. Environmental Health Perspectives. " Lowman A, et al. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205470
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"Application of WWTP Biosolids and Resulting Perfluorinated Compound Contamination of Surface and Well Water in Decatur, Alabama, USA.” Lindstrom A., et al. 2011. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(19):8015-21, P-1,3.
HARM TO AGRICULTURE
"The EPA is cracking down on PFAS — but not in fertilizer. Farmers spread treated human waste on their crops. It's full of forever chemicals"- Grist. 4.19.24. https://grist.org/agriculture/the-epa-is-cracking-down-on-pfas-but-not-in-fertilizer/
"Hormones in Land Applied Biosolids Could Affect Aquatic Life". https://www.usgs.gov/programs/environmental-health-program/science/hormones-land-applied-biosolids-could-affect-aquatic
"EPA Unable to Assess the Impact of Hundreds of Unregulated Pollutants in Land-Applied Biosolids on Human Health and the Environment". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. Office of the Inspector General. Report No. 19-P-0002.
EPA Biennial Report (2022) https://www.epa.gov/biosolids/biennial-report-no-9-reporting-period-2020-2021. "A total of 739 chemicals have been identified in biosolids to date; about 250 of these are dioxins, furans, and PCBs. The list is available here: https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical-lists/BIOSOLIDS2022
"EPA Recommends Use of NPDES Permits to Manage PFAS"
https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-issues-guidance-states-reduce-harmful-pfas-pollution
“EPA is following through on its commitment to empower states and communities across the nation to address known or suspected discharges of PFAS,” said EPA Assistant Administrator for Water Radhika Fox. “Today’s action builds upon successful and innovative efforts already used by several states to safeguard communities by using our Clean Water Act permitting program to identify and reduce sources of PFAS pollution before they enter our waters.”
The memorandum, Addressing PFAS Discharges in National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permits and Through the Pretreatment Program and Monitoring Programs, will align wastewater and stormwater NPDES permits and pretreatment program implementation activities with the goals in EPA’s PFAS Strategic Roadmap.
It recommends that states use the most current sampling and analysis methods in their NPDES programs to identify known or suspected sources of PFAS and to take actions using their pretreatment and permitting authorities, such as imposing technology-based limits on sources of PFAS discharges. The memo will also help the Agency obtain comprehensive information through monitoring on the sources and quantities of PFAS discharges, informing other EPA efforts to address PFAS. Several states have already demonstrated the benefits of leveraging their state administered NPDES permit programs to identify and reduce sources of PFAS before these forever chemicals enter treatment facilities and surface waters. Michigan, for example, is partnering with municipal wastewater treatment facilities to develop monitoring approaches to help identify upstream sources of PFAS. The state has been able to leverage that monitoring information to work with industries, such as electroplating companies, to substantially reduce PFAS discharges. North Carolina has also successfully leveraged its NPDES program to develop facility-specific, technology-based effluent limits for known industrial dischargers of PFAS.
States are urged to replicate these approaches and use others noted in the memo to identify and reduce PFAS discharges. “
Extraction, analysis, and occurrence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in wastewater and after municipal biosolids land application to determine agricultural loading.
Original Research PUBLISHED 27 October 2022. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/natrespapers/1613/
Given the ubiquitous detection of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) within numerous soil and water environmental compartments, there is a need for global understanding of current methodologies for extracting water, solids, polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS), and plant tissue for these substances. This study provides details of several current extraction methods, demonstrates the use of POCIS in monitoring these compounds in a wastewater environment, and provides evidence of detectable levels of certain PFAS compounds within Midwestern municipalities and agroecosystems. Validated extraction procedures help characterize occurrence and release of 18 PFAS in a midwestern wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), surface water, runoff after land application of biosolids to agricultural test plots, infiltration into topsoil, and uptake by grain sorghum. Of the compounds measured, 14 PFAS were detected at least at one sampling site or type. The average total (ΣPFAS) dissolved phase time-weighted average (TWA) concentration in wastewater influent, effluent and in the upstream and downstream effluent mixing zone (EMZ) sites in the receiving stream, respectively, were 27.9, 132, 37.7, and 71.4 ng L −1 . Long-chain PFAS dominated most of the aqueous compartments, and perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) occurred in the WWTP and receiving surface waters. Total Σ 14 PFAS measured in municipal biosolids applied to soils were 22.9 ng g −1 dw with long-chain PFAS comprising 77.5% of the cumulative PFAS mass. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS)was the most abundant compound detected in biosolids at the highest concentration (9.40 ng g −1 dw). Accumulation in WWTP biosolids was estimated to occur at a rate of 72.8 g day −1 dw based on the difference between influent and effluent time weighted average concentrations. PFAS were detected in both surface soil and runoff after land application of biosolids, but also in control plots consistent with background PFAS contamination. PFAS concentrations in surface runoff decreased over time from plots treated with biosolids. These results provide evidence of the introduction of PFAS to agroecosystems from wastewater effluent and land application of biosolids in the Midwest.
Conclusion - The investigated WWTP was not effective at removing PFAS and individual PFAAs may increase potentially due to individual contaminant changes in temporal loading, desorption, and degradation of PFAA precursors. Our results are consistent with previous studies showing that WWTP effluent is a source of PFAS to receiving surface water, and that biosolids land applied can serve as a route of entry onto cropland. The mass balance of PFAS applied within biosolids to agricultural plots indicates that surface soil and runoff events in August and September only accounted for 3.12% fΣPFAS applied, indicating that the majority (96.9%) of the mass of PFAS applied is transported or retained through unidentified routes. Further research is needed to determine the mass balance of PFAS within WWTPs and on fields receiving the land application of contaminated municipal biosolids.
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"Biosolids Soil Amendments May Be a Pathway for PFAS Contamination of Soil, Water, and Ultimately, Our Food".
https://stroudcenter.org/news/biosolid-soil-amendments-may-be-pathway-pfas-contamination/. That article explains their concern that "current analytical methods for PFAS can only quantify less than 40 of the thousands of PFAS estimated to exist, and such methods are costly."We thank the Stroud Water Research Center for this picture which appeared in the article.
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"SEWAGE SLUDGE ‘FERTILIZER’ CONTAMINATES FARMS WITH TOXIC PFAS." (2023) Atlantic Chapter Sierra Club. https://drive.google.com/file/d/170xYO1xcUcNh2kNZkIPPD9rIQy7ZHphy/view
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"Long-Term Biosolids Application on Land: Beneficial Recycling of Nutrients or Eutrophication of Agroecosystems?” (2022). Murray B. McBride 10.3390/soilsystems6010009.
The problem with Phosphorus is described here: “Concentrations of a number of the most toxic metals in biosolids (most notably, Cd, Hg, and Pb) have decreased in recent decades. However, P concentrations in biosolids have generally not decreased and may actually have increased over this same time period, as tertiary treatment of wastewater to lower dissolved phosphate in treated water has become more commonplace at municipal treatment plants . This process retains a larger fraction of wastewater P in the biosolids. Because farms following state and federal guidelines generally apply biosolids based upon crop N requirements, the typical ratio of N to P in these materials leads to soil accumulation of P and potential risk to eutrophication of surface waters. Consequently, repeated farm application of biosolids almost invariably lead to irreversible buildup of excessive concentrations of P in surface soils, much of which is in available form. This buildup increases losses of soil P to surrounding water bodies by leaching and erosion, with consequent water eutrophication and algal blooms .”
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"Forever Chemicals and Risks to Farms"(2022) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/livestock/article/2022/05/06/michigan-farm-cautionary-tale-pfas
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"Sewage sludge in agriculture - the effects of selected chemical pollutants and emerging genetic resistance determinants on the quality of soil and crops - a review" (2021) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651321001810?via%3Dihub
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"Sludge in the Garden". (2021) https://www.sierraclub.org/sludge-garden-toxic-pfas-home-fertilizers-made-sewage-sludge
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"How microplastics are making their way into our farmland" https://phys.org/news/2023-08-microplastics-farmland.html’
“What Goes Down the Drain May End Up On Your Plate — Your Right to Know” (2019) by Darlene Schanfald, Ph.D. https://www.sierraclub.org/sites/www.sierraclub.org/files/sce/north-olympic-group/Sewage%20Sludge%20DS%20-%20Neja%20Mag%20Sort%20Booklet%20-%2010-11-19%20new%20small.pdf
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"Sewage sludge in agriculture - the effects of selected chemical pollutants and emerging genetic resistance determinants on the quality of soil and crops - a review" (2021) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0147651321001810?via%3Dihub '
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"Role of wastewater treatment plant in environmental cycling of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances". Hamid, H., & Li, L. (2016) Ecocycles, 2(2), 43-53
PFASinBiosolidsdocx.pdf154.47 KBPFAS have been found in almost all biosolids tested. Harmful algae blooms have been associated with land applications of biosolids.
ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES:
"Microbial and thermal treatment techniques for degradation of PFAS in biosolids: A focus on degradation mechanisms and pathways". https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131212. Journal of Hazardous Materials. Volume 452, 15 June 2023, 131212. Kumar et al
"High-temperature technology survey and comparison among incineration, pyrolysis, and gasification systems for water resource recovery facilities." Winchell, L. J., et al. (2022a). " Water Environment Research 94(4): e10715. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wer.10715
"Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances thermal destruction at water resource recovery facilities: A state of the science review.
Conclusions Thermal treatment of PFAS through an SSI represents a potential wastewater solids process for destroying PFAS; however, significant questions remain regarding both the destruction efficiency and potential formation of undesirable by‐products. While nearly complete PFAS decomposition has been demonstrated at temperatures representative of SSI operation, by‐products have also been observed.
Temperature is only one of the three primary parameters when assessing destruction capacity in combustion systems, the other two being residence time and turbulence. A well‐functioning SSI will submit PFAS to greater residence times and mixing (or turbulence) than the laboratory‐scale research performed to date, further promoting PFAS destruction. If PFAS parent compounds are recalcitrant or PICs are formed, they will be subjected to air pollution control equipment, which will likely capture an additional fraction of PFAS compounds. Consequently, a critical near‐term need exists to evaluate the fate of PFAS through full‐scale SSIs to understand the fate of the PFAS in the wastewater solids and identify PICs in stack emissions and air pollution control residual streams.
"Feasibility of alternative sewage sludge treatment methods from a lifecycle assessment (LCA) perspective Life Cycle Assessment of Sewage Sludge treatments." 2019. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619343653